Crop Management Practices in Rural Riverine Islands of Bangladesh

This study focused on farmers’ crop management practices in selected rural riverine islands ( Char lands) of Sariakandi Upazila, Bogura district, Bangladesh. Disproportionate stratified sampling was adopted to select the respondents. The data were elicited using an interview schedule and analyzed via Statistics 10 software. Results revealed that, on average, there was moderate knowledge on crop management practices, and the attitude towards the practices was favorable. But, in deviance from what is habitually obtained on mainland Bangladesh where rice cultivation dominates, jute (35.84%) and chili (28.4%) covered the majority in Char Ghagua and Char Shaluka, respectively. In Char Tengrakura , rice and chili covered a little above half (52.7%) of the crops cultivated by the respondents. In terms of the management practices, the lion’s share (81.7%,


Introduction
Crop management denotes a group of agricultural practices to improve crop growth, development, and yield. These practices include crop-related, soil, pest and disease, and water management practices. The whole aim is to maximize productivity and, ultimately, nutrition and income. Crop management practices are indispensable for the survival of countries like Bangladesh. This is because the country is traditionally and predominantly an agriculture-based country, and about 75.7 percent of its population are engaged in agriculture for their livelihood (BBS, 2012). But, from the colonial period Char (riverine islands) areas have been recognized as a 'zone of the anomaly' mostly in terms of their isolation (Ahmed, 1999).
In contrast, in postcolonial discourse, Char has been represented as a periphery of settlement, a landscape, an economic resource for the country, and a food source for the landless who may work to bring it under cultivation (Baqee, 1993;Sarker, 2008). It is against this that the Char land constitutes the principal resource source to the char dwellers.
The majority of people living in the char lands of Bangladesh are involved in crop cultivation (Islam, 2000;BBS, 2007), agriculture labor, operating boats, and fishing; hence, they are said to be frequently unemployed due to tidal flooding and other natural disasters common to the riverine islands. The situation makes them poor and degraded. In that vein, poverty and degradation have been cited as significant problems that affect agricultural production (Nkoya et al., 2008). So, because Char dwellers were landless primarily from the mainland and could not move to areas where resources were still plentiful, they would have to increase the amount and the predictability of the food they produced on the Char lands. In the past, crop management practices were employed, which mainly encompassed natural fallowing, shifting cultivation, and slash and burn. Today, many technologies have been adopted by the Char land farmers. In addition, diversified livelihood practices counter challenges posed by declining output from agricultural production, which is the principal livelihood activity in Char lands and most Bangladesh rural areas. However, Char land soils are easily cultivable (Vadivelu et al., 2005), but crop yield has been reported low (Islam et al., 2018). Perhaps, due to annual inundation from the flood that causes much damage to the standing crops, low water holding capacity and poor soil nutrients, recurring erosion, or limited/no access to the desired modern agricultural technologies by the farmers (SRDI, 2001;Karim, 2014). Besides, Char land farmers cultivate local varieties of different crops following indigenous crop production practices. As a result, yield usually turns out to be low. In addition, they mostly practice native crop production management techniques, which could have been contributing to the low yield in the Char areas (Islam et al., 2016). Besides, Karim et al. (2017) reported other fundamental problems related to the technology transfer, inputs and credit availability, storage facility, irrigation facility, poorly organized marketing system, etc.
Although it is increasingly acknowledged that Char land areas need assistance to alleviate poverty, efforts are yet to focus on sustainable development strategies. This might be fundamentally due to little or no consideration of the areas' felt needs and unique requirements.
In this regard, the present study was borne out of a lack of specific studies or a single comprehensive report on crop management practices in the Char lands of Banglades exists are is no research, intervention, or effort that reflects the real felt needs (which could guide participatory bottom-up development efforts) of the Char land dwellers, especially farmers regarding their crop management practices. Nevertheless, intervention projects and random adaptive research (Aziz et al., 2016;Islam et al., 2015;Islam et al., 2016, etc.) have been conducted by different individuals and organizations in the Char land areas of Bangladesh.
Even at that, the respective scope of the intervention projects and random adaptive research was broad such that crop management practices were given limited and superficial attention despite agriculture being the main livelihood activity of the Char land inhabitants. It is seldom obtained that the programs/projects and researches take technology (out of the felt needs of the Char land inhabitants) to farmers. Instead, they usually try technologies in the Char areas or empower the Char land farmers in various ways, ultimately affecting their crop management practices due to the multiplier effect. Consequently, this research was prompted to enquire about some relevant questions that include Char land farmers crop management practices, their knowledge, and attitude towards the crop management practices with a whole view of laying the foundation upon which sustainability of crop management could be achieved through bringing to limelight the existing situation.

Materials and Methods
The study was carried out in Char Ghagua, Char Tengrakura, and Char Shaluka of Sariakandi sub-district (coordinates: 24°53′N 89°34′E) in Bogura district, Bangladesh. Char Ghagua and Char Tengrakura share a border. They are located northeast of the Sariakandi Sadar Upazila, off the eastern bank of the Jamuna river, while Char Shaluka is located on the western bank of the Jamuna river. The Char lands were selected due to their level of vulnerability (Islam et al., 2014), relative ease of accessibility to the researcher, and cooperation of the inhabitants in conducting the study. For more clarity on the locale of this study, a map of the Sariakandi sub-district representing a rough location of the respective Char lands with thick blue arrows is presented in Figure 1. selected through disproportionate stratified sampling as the study sample. Thus, the study sample comprised 150 respondents from whom the required data were collected. Selection of the respondents was made following disproportionate stratified sampling technique for ease of comparison. The Char lands were first stratified based on their location. Subsequently, the respondents were drawn. A pre-designed interview schedule was used as a data-gathering instrument through face-to-face interviews. The data collected was processed and analyzed via the Statistix 10 computer package.
To assess the respondents' knowledge of crop management practices, fourteen questions were asked, with two marks allotted for each. Total marks obtained by a respondent were added to evaluate their knowledge level. For the correct answer, the respondent was given two spots and one mark for a partial answer. In case of an incorrect answer, a score of '0' was given. The knowledge level was thus categorized adapting Naznin (2018), as indicated in the results. Attitude towards crop management practices was measured using a three-point Likert-type scale of agree (2), undecided (1), and disagree (0). The scale was prepared with nineteen constructs reflecting both positive and negative aspects of crop management practices. Total scores were calculated by adding each respondent's scores for all the statements. The attitude towards crop management practices was categorized following Ali (2013). The crop management practices were measured based on the coverage of some listed soil, crop, pest, diseases, and water management practices. The respondents were asked to indicate the extent of coverage (%) of those items in their farmlands. Responses were later aggregated into mean for each of the practices.

Results and Discussion
This sub-section encompasses all those practices related and executed by the respondents to attain maximum output from their cultivation. Items that include soil type, type of crops cultivated, knowledge on crop management practices, attitude towards crop management practices, soil management practices, crop-related management practices, water (irrigation) practices, and, pest and disease management practices are presented and discussed hereunder were cut to a smaller size of about 0.3-0.5 cm before drying (Fig. 1b).

Soil Type
Soil type refers to the group or taxonomic unit shared by soils based on their common distinguishing properties. The Char land farmers might not know the scientific classification of the grounds. Still, they are very much aware of the physically distinctive features the soils possess, the crop suitable, and their likely effect on specific crops. Owing to this background, the description offered by all the respondents in the Char areas unanimously symbolizes loamy sand.

Crop Type
The type of crop cultivated forms an integral component of crop production. It partly regulates production cost, sales income, and food intake nutrition. The mean coverage (%) of the type of crops cultivated by the respondents is revealed in Table 1.
In deviance from what habitually obtains where rice dominates, jute (35.84%) and chili (28.4%) averagely covered the majority in Char Ghagua and Char Shaluka, respectively. But, rice came second with 25.96 percent and 34.26 percent in the latter and former, respectively.
In Char Tengrakura, rice and chili notably covered a little above half (52.7%) of the crops cultivated by the respondents. Crop found with least mean coverage were mustard (0.1%) and groundnut (0.2%) in Char Ghagua, groundnut (0.2%) and millet (0.4%) in Char Tengrakura and, millet (0.06%) and potato (0.5%) in Char Shaluka. Out of the cultivated crops, ten each were cultivated in Char Tengrakura and Char Shaluka, while nine were cultivated in Char Ghagua. The results imply a considerable diversity of the cultivated crops coverage in the areas. Therefore, it is submitted that the relative number of crops under cultivation in the areas could pave the way for more adoption when introduced to the respondents. Nasim et al. (2017) reported similar findings.

Knowledge of Crop Management Practices
Knowledge of crop management practices is very important in the present study. It tells how much the Char land farmers vis-à-vis the respondents know about crop management practices principles, know-how, and application. The respondents were assessed in respect of that through fourteen questions, with each carrying two, one, and zero marks for a complete answer, partial answer, and no answer, respectively. Subsequently, according to their scores, the respondents have been categorized into low, moderate, and high knowledge (Table 2).  Khapayi and Celliers (2016) in the rural area of King William's Town of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa, it was found that the respondents lacked adequate knowledge and skills on management of crop production. That was indicated to be a key factor limiting emerging farmers from progress in farming. Also, in the Char lands, especially Char Ghagua and Char Tengrakura, the respondents stated that management was one of the key challenges they faced, which threatened their livelihood sustenance.

Attitude towards Crop Management Practices
Attitude, which is the mental disposition towards or away from something, impacts the action of an individual. When it comes to crop management practices, a farmer defines what and how crop production activities are handled to maximize output and ultimately sustain livelihood. Considering this importance, the attitude of the respondents was measured. Table   3 displays the categorization of the respondents into unfavorable, favorable, and highly favorable based on their scores from the measurement.

21.90
Unfavorable ( Averagely, all the respondents from the Char areas had a favorable attitude towards crop management practices. This is so because the respondents disclosed that experience had taught them that good management output increases, thereby more income. When the three Char lands are contrasted, in both Char Tengrakura and Char Shaluka, no respondent had a highly favorable attitude towards crop management practices. In contrast, in Char Ghagua, 2.0 percent did have. On a positive note, generally, only 4.0, 4.0, and 6.0 percent in Char Ghagua, Char Tengrakura, and Char Shaluka, respectively, had unfavorable attitudes towards crop management practices. Contrary to the present findings, a study conducted by Fanadzo et al. (2010) in rural South Africa reported poor attitudes towards crop production management practices resulting from lacking necessary basic skills. Thus, the present results are encouraging and could imply the tendency to adopt crop management practices when introduced to the Char land farmers, specifically the respondents.

Soil Management Practices
Soil management practices are employed on the farm to ensure sound health of soil such that mineral elements are made available to the plants and same move into the food chain. Good soil management practices enhance agricultural productivity, the environment, and even human and animal health. The mean coverage (%) of the soil management practices engaged by the respondents is presented in Table 4. The lion's share (81.7%, 74.7%, and 77.0%) was covered through chemical fertilizers by the respondents in all the Char lands to enhance soil nutrient availability. Additionally, 1, 5, and 4 percent were covered by incorporated crop residue, applied ash, and mulching, respectively, in Char Ghagua. In Char Tengrakura,9.48,0.4,5.3,and 9.4 percent were covered by cow dung, household waste, ash, and mulching, respectively. In Char Shaluka, 0.

Crop-related Management Practices
The management practices of the crops in a typical rural area of Bangladesh such as the Char land mostly revolve around cropping patterns, rotation and rarely cover cropping. The respondents' crop-related management practices mean coverage (%) in the studied Char lands is expressed in Table 5. In Char Ghagua, on average, double and triple cropping patterns mainly covered 44.84 and 32.1 percent, respectively, while fallow covered 11.0 percent, single cropping 8.76 percent, and crop rotation 3 percent. As for Char Tengrakura, triple cropping covered around 2/3 (63.6%), followed by 6.8 percent

Water Management Practices (Irrigation)
Both the quantity and quality of irrigation water could significantly affect the management of crops during production. It is so important that a farmer takes this into cognizance to minimize if not overcome loss. The irrigation practices carried out by the respondents are specified in Table 6.  Nahian et al. (2018) found that in coastal areas of Bangladesh (predominantly Char lands) the inhabitants solely depended on groundwater from shallow tube well for a water source.

Pest and Disease Management Practices
Pest and diseases are inevitable in crop production, but economic loss sets in when they transcend beyond the threshold levels. So, the management of pest and diseases safeguards crops and save the farmer from losing out. Results in Table 7 illustrate the mean coverage (%) of pest and disease management practices performed by the respondents. in terms of a number of the practices. The number of crops cultivated was ten in Char Tengrakura and Char Shaluka, and nine in Char Ghagua. Irrigation water management practice was through tube well, while chemicals were mainly used for pest and disease management. However, Char Shaluka was comparatively better in terms of a number of pest and disease management practices.
The prevalence of synthetic chemicals' usage in the management of crops and use of underground water is a call for concern in the Char lands because while the former degrades the environment the latter sinks the islands gradually (if at all they last) through subsidence.
Thus, the government needs to as a matter of immediate concern design a comprehensive research-based sustainability plan for the Char lands (relative to their peculiarities) given the number of people occupying them and their continuous formation and deformation. Similarly, there is a need to realize and take necessary measures towards ensuring that whatever development effort is going to be carried out in the Char lands emerge from the felt needs of the inhabitants. This goes a long way towards creating 'we feeling' and participatory governance of the areas.

Conflict of interest
The authors declare that there is no competing interest (e.g., financial, professional, or personal relationships relevant to the work).